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computer hardware

Personal computer hardware

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Computer hardware)

Jump to: navigation, search

Hardware of Personal Computer .
1. Monitor
2. Motherboard
3. CPU
4. RAM Memory
5. Expansion card
6. Power Supply
7. CD-ROM Drive
8. Hard Disk
9. Keyboard
10. Mouse

Inside a custom computer.

A personal computer is made up of multiple physical components of computer hardware, upon which can be installed an operating system and a multitude of software to perform the operator's desired functions.

Contents [hide] 1 Typical PC hardware 1.1 Motherboard 1.2 Power supply 1.3 Video display controller 1.4 Removable media devices 1.5 Internal storage 1.6 Sound card 1.7 Networking 1.8 Other peripherals 1.8.1 Input 1.8.2 Output 2 See also 3 External links

[edit] Typical PC hardware

Though a PC comes in many different form factors, a typical personal computer consists of a case or chassis in a tower shape (desktop) and the following parts:

[edit] Motherboard

The motherboard is the "body"^{[citation needed]} of the computer. Components directly attached to the motherboard include:

• The central processing unit (CPU) performs most of the calculations which enable a computer to function, and is sometimes referred to as the "brain" of the computer. It is usually cooled by a heat sink and fan.
• The chipset mediates communication between the CPU and the other components of the system, including main memory.
• RAM Stores all running processes (applications) and the current running OS. RAM Stands for Random Access Memory
• The BIOS includes boot firmware and power management. The Basic Input Output System tasks are handled by operating system drivers.
• Internal Buses connect the CPU to various internal components and to expansion cards for graphics and sound.
  • Current
    • The northbridge memory controller, for RAM and PCI Express
      • PCI Express, for graphics cards
    • PCI, for other expansion cards
    • SATA, for disk drives
  • Obsolete
    • ATA (superseded by SATA)
    • AGP (superseded by PCI Express)
    • VLB VESA Local Bus (superseded by AGP)
    • ISA (expansion card slot format obsolete in PCs, but still used in industrial computers)
• External Bus Controllers support ports for external peripherals. These ports may be controlled directly by the southbridge I/O controller or based on expansion cards attached to the motherboard through the PCI bus.
  • USB
  • FireWire
  • eSATA

[edit] Power supply

Main article: Power supply unit (computer)

Includes power cord, switch, and cooling fan. Supplies power at appropriate voltages to the motherboard and internal disk drives.

[edit] Video display controller

Main article: Graphics card

Produces the output for the visual display unit. This will either be built into the motherboard or attached in its own separate slot (PCI, PCI-E, PCI-E 2.0, or AGP), in the form of a graphics card.

[edit] Removable media devices

Main article: Computer storage

• CD (compact disc) - the most common type of removable media, suitable for music and data.
  • CD-ROM Drive - a device used for reading data from a CD.
  • CD Writer - a device used for both reading and writing data to and from a CD.
• DVD (digital versatile disc) - a popular type of removable media that is the same dimensions as a CD but stores up to 12 times as much information. It is the most common way of transferring digital video, and is popular for data storage.
  • DVD-ROM Drive - a device used for reading data from a DVD.
  • DVD Writer - a device used for both reading and writing data to and from a DVD.
  • DVD-RAM Drive - a device used for rapid writing and reading of data from a special type of DVD.
• Blu-ray Disc - a high-density optical disc format for data and high-definition video. Can store 70 times as much information as a CD.
  • BD-ROM Drive - a device used for reading data from a Blu-ray disc.
  • BD Writer - a device used for both reading and writing data to and from a Blu-ray disc.
• HD DVD - a discontinued competitor to the Blu-ray format.
• Floppy disk - an outdated storage device consisting of a thin disk of a flexible magnetic storage medium. Used today mainly for loading RAID drivers.
• Zip drive - an outdated medium-capacity removable disk storage system, first introduced by Iomega in 1994.
• USB flash drive - a flash memory data storage device integrated with a USB interface, typically small, lightweight, removable, and rewritable. Capacities vary, from hundreds of megabytes (in the same ballpark as CDs) to tens of gigabytes (surpassing, at great expense, Blu-ray discs).
• Tape drive - a device that reads and writes data on a magnetic tape, used for long term storage and backups.

[edit] Internal storage

Hardware that keeps data inside the computer for later use and remains persistent even when the computer has no power.

• Hard disk - for medium-term storage of data.
• Solid-state drive - a device similar to hard disk, but containing no moving parts and stores data in a digital format.
• RAID array controller - a device to manage several internal or external hard disks and optionally some peripherals in order to achieve performance or reliability improvement in what is called a RAID array.

[edit] Sound card

Main article: Sound card

Enables the computer to output sound to audio devices, as well as accept input from a microphone. Most modern computers have sound cards built-in to the motherboard, though it is common for a user to install a separate sound card as an upgrade. Most sound cards, either built-in or added, have surround sound capabilities.

[edit] Networking

Main article: Computer networks

Connects the computer to the Internet and/or other computers.

• Modem - for dial-up connections or sending digital faxes. (outdated)
• Network card - for DSL/Cable internet, and/or connecting to other computers, using IEEE 802.3 standards.
• Direct Cable Connection - Use of a null modem, connecting two computers together using their serial ports or a Laplink Cable, connecting two computers together with their parallel ports.

[edit] Other peripherals

Main article: Peripheral

In addition, hardware devices can include external components of a computer system. The following are either standard or very common.

Wheel Mouse

Includes various input and output devices, usually external to the computer system.

[edit] Input

Main article: Input

• Text input devices
  • Keyboard - a device to input text and characters by depressing buttons (referred to as keys), similar to a typewriter. The most common English-language key layout is the QWERTY layout.
• Pointing devices
  • Mouse - a pointing device that detects two dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface.
  • Optical Mouse - a newer technology that uses lasers, or more commonly LEDs to track the surface under the mouse to determine motion of the mouse, to be translated into mouse movements on the screen.
  • Trackball - a pointing device consisting of an exposed protruding ball housed in a socket that detects rotation about two axes.

• Gaming devices
  • Joystick - a general control device that consists of a handheld stick that pivots around one end, to detect angles in two or three dimensions.
  • Gamepad - a general handheld game controller that relies on the digits (especially thumbs) to provide input.
  • Game controller - a specific type of controller specialized for certain gaming purposes.
• Image, Video input devices
  • Image scanner - a device that provides input by analyzing images, printed text, handwriting, or an object.
  • Webcam - a low resolution video camera used to provide visual input that can be easily transferred over the internet.
• Audio input devices
  • Microphone - an acoustic sensor that provides input by converting sound into electrical signals.
  • Mic - Converting an autio signal into electrical signal

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BARRACUDA DIVING

BARRACUDA DIVING INDIA began operations in 1993 to promote the sport of recreational diving in India. We are the first and only PADI 5 Star Dive Resort in the entire Indian sub-continent. Our membership, held since 1997, recognizes the highest standards of diver education, staff training, safety, equipment and dive services and denotes a quality control assurance to divers worldwide. The Barracuda team have proudly received three PADI 'Awards of Excellence' for outstanding dedication to diver safety, education and environmental conservation.

Owners Venkatesh Charloo (India) and Karen Gregory (U.K.) are both highly qualified PADI IDC Staff Instructors with extensive diving and teaching experience in Hong Kong, Philippines, Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Maldives, Andaman and Lakshadweep Islands. With 14 years of teaching, diving and travel in India we look forward to sharing our incomparable passion for the knowledge and beauty of our amazing underwater worldPlanning your perfect dive holiday just became easy. We have teamed up with some of the worlds leading dive operators to offer select, all inclusive diving/accommodation packages for small groups and individuals. Choose from exotic destinations including Andaman Islands, Bali, Maldives, Manado, Indonesia and Sipadan, Malaysia.Are you ready to change your life? Love adventure and travel, meeting new friends and facing new challenges? Become a PADI Scuba Diving Instructor or Divemaster with our personalized professional training internships. Great discounts on courses, equipment, travel, accommodation and study materials. Job placement services available.Yes, learning to scuba dive is fun and easy! Experience your first exhilarating breath underwater with PADI Discover Scuba Diving. Weekend free? Get certified with PADI Scuba Diver. Start now with PADI e-learning, the PADI Open Water Course is just a CLICK away.

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scuba diving 2

Diving masks and diving helmets and fullface masks solve this problem by creating an air space in front of the diver's eyes.[1] The refraction error created by the water is mostly corrected as the light travels from water to air through a flat lens, except that objects appear approximately 34% bigger and 25% closer in salt water than they actually are. Therefore total field-of-view is significantly reduced and eye-hand coordination must be adjusted.
(This affects underwater photography: a camera seeing through a flat window in its casing is affected the same as its user's eye seeing through a flat mask window, and so its user must focus for the apparent distance to target, not for the real distance.)
Divers who need corrective lenses to see clearly outside the water would normally need the same prescription while wearing a mask. Generic and custom corrective lenses are available for some two-window masks. Custom lenses can be bonded onto masks that have a single front window.
A "double-dome mask" has curved windows in an attempt to cure these faults, but this causes a refraction problem of its own.
On rare occasions, commando frogmen use special contact lenses instead, to see underwater without the large glass surface of a diving mask, which can reflect light and give away the frogman's position.
As a diver changes depth, he must periodically exhale through his nose to equalize the internal pressure of the mask with that of the surrounding water. Swimming goggles which only cover the eyes do not allow for equalization and thus are not suitable for diving.
[edit]Controlling buoyancy underwater


Diver under the Salt Pier in Bonaire.
To dive safely, divers need to be able to control their rate of descent and ascent in the water.[2] Ignoring other forces such as water currents and swimming, the diver's overall buoyancy determines whether he ascends or descends. Equipment such as the diving weighting systems, diving suits (Wet, Dry & Semi-dry suits are used depending on the water temperature) and buoyancy compensators can be used to adjust the overall buoyancy.[1] When divers want to remain at constant depth, they try to achieve neutral buoyancy. This minimizes gas consumption caused by swimming to maintain depth.
The downward force on the diver is the weight of the diver and his equipment minus the weight of the same volume of the liquid that he is immersed in; if the result is negative, that force is upwards. Diving weighting systems can be used to reduce the diver's weight and cause an ascent in an emergency. Diving suits, mostly being made of compressible materials, shrink as the diver descends, and expand as the diver ascends, creating unwanted buoyancy changes. The diver can inject air into some diving suits to counteract this effect and squeeze. Buoyancy compensators allow easy and fine adjustments in the diver's overall volume and therefore buoyancy. For open circuit divers, changes in the diver's lung volume can be used to adjust buoyancy.
[edit]Avoiding losing body heat
Main article: Diving suit
Water conducts heat from the diver 25 times[10] better than air, which can lead to hypothermia even in mild water temperatures.[2] Symptoms of hypothermia include impaired judgment and dexterity[11], which can quickly become deadly in an aquatic environment. In all but the warmest waters, divers need the thermal insulation provided by wetsuits or drysuits.[1]
In the case of a wetsuit, the suit is designed to minimize heat loss. Wetsuits are generally made of neoprene that has small gas cells, generally nitrogen, trapped in it during the manufacturing process. The poor thermal conductivity of this expanded cell neoprene means that wetsuits reduce loss of body heat by conduction to the surrounding water. The neoprene in this case acts as an insulator.
The second way in which wetsuits reduce heat loss is to trap a thin layer of water between the diver's skin and the insulating suit itself. Body heat then heats the trapped water. Provided the wetsuit is reasonably well-sealed at all openings (neck, wrists, legs), this reduces water flow over the surface of the skin, reducing loss of body heat by convection, and therefore keeps the diver warm (this is the principle employed in the use of a "Semi-Dry")


Spring suit and steamer
In the case of a drysuit, it does exactly that: keeps a diver dry. The suit is sealed so that frigid water cannot penetrate the suit. Drysuit undergarments are often worn under a drysuit as well, and help to keep layers of air inside the suit for better thermal insulation. Some divers carry an extra gas bottle dedicated to filling the dry suit. Usually this bottle contains argon gas, because of its better insulation as compared with air.[12]
Drysuits fall into two main categories neoprene and membrane; both systems have their good and bad points but generally their thermal properties can be reduced to:
Membrane: usually a trilaminate construction; owing to the thinness of the material (around 1 mm), these require an undersuit, usually of high insulation value if diving in cooler water.
Neoprene: a similar construction to wetsuits; these are often considerably thicker (7-8 mm) and have sufficient insulation to allow a lighter-weight undersuit (or none at all); however on deeper dives the neoprene can compress to as little as 2 mm thus losing a proportion of their insulation. Compressed or crushed neoprene may also be used (where the neoprene is pre-compressed to 2-3 mm) which avoids the variation of insulating properties with depth.
[edit]Avoiding skin cuts and grazes
Diving suits also help prevent the diver's skin being damaged by rough or sharp underwater objects, marine animals or coral.
[edit]Diving longer and deeper safely
There are a number of techniques to increase the diver's ability to dive deeper and longer:
Technical diving - diving deeper than 40 metres (130 ft), using mixed gases, and/or entering overhead environments (caves or wrecks)
surface supplied diving - use of umbilical gas supply and diving helmets.[1]
saturation diving - long-term use of underwater habitats under pressure and a gradual release of pressure over several days in a decompression chamber at the end of a dive.[1]
[edit]Being mobile underwater
The diver needs to be mobile underwater. Streamlining dive gear will reduce drag and improve mobility. Personal mobility is enhanced by swimfins and Diver Propulsion Vehicles. Other equipment to improve mobility includes diving bells and diving shots.
scuba diving does not have a centralized certifying or regulatory agency, and is mostly self regulated. There are, however, several large diving organizations that train and certify divers and dive instructors, and many diving related sales and rental outlets require proof of diver certification from one of these organizations prior to selling or renting certain diving products or services.
The largest international certification agencies that are currently recognized by most diving outlets for diver certification include:
American Canadian Underwater Certifications (ACUC) (formerly Association of Canadian Underwater Councils) - originated in Canada in 1969 and expanded internationally in 1984
British Sub Aqua Club (BSAC) - based in the United Kingdom, founded in 1953 and is the largest dive club in the world
European Committee of Professional Diving Instructors (CEDIP) based in Europe since 1992 (see Cedip on French Wiki pages)
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS), the World Underwater Federation
National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI) - based in the United States
Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC) - based in the United States
Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI) - based in the United States, largest recreational dive training and certification organization in the world
Scottish Sub Aqua Club (SSAC or ScotSAC) the National Governing Body for the sport of diving in Scotland.
International Training SDI, TDI & ERDi -based in the United States, TDI is the world's largest technical diving agency, SDI is the recreational division focusing on new methods and online courses, and ERDi is the public safety component.
Scuba Schools International (SSI) - based in the United States with 35 Regional Centers and Area Offices around the globe.
YMCA scuba - based in the U.S., part of Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA), a Christian related organization (open to all faiths, ages and genders despite the historic name)

Scuba diving

Scuba (originally an acronym for Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus) diving is swimming underwater, or taking part in another activity, while using a scuba set.[1] By carrying a source of breathing gas (usually compressed air),[2] the scuba diver is able to stay underwater longer than with the simple breath-holding techniques used in snorkeling and free-diving, and is not hindered by air lines to a remote air source. The scuba diver typically swims underwater by using fins attached to the feet. However, some divers also move around with the assistance of a DPV (diver propulsion vehicle), commonly called a "scooter", or by using surface-tethered devices called sleds pulled by a boat.
For the history of diving, see timeline of underwater technology.
Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Etymology
3 Types of diving
4 Physiological issues
4.1 Breathing underwater
4.2 Open-circuit
4.3 Rebreather
4.4 Gas mixtures
4.5 Injuries due to changes in air pressure
4.6 Effects of breathing high pressure gas
4.6.1 Decompression sickness
4.6.2 Nitrogen narcosis
4.6.3 Oxygen toxicity
4.7 Refraction and underwater vision
4.8 Controlling buoyancy underwater
4.9 Avoiding losing body heat
4.10 Avoiding skin cuts and grazes
4.11 Diving longer and deeper safely
4.12 Being mobile underwater
5 Scuba dive training and certification agencies
6 See also
7 Reference list
8 Further reading
9 External links
History

Scuba today typically refers to the in-line open-circuit equipment, developed by Emile Gagnan and Jacques-Yves Cousteau, in which compressed gas (usually air) is inhaled from a tank and then exhaled into the water. However, rebreathers (both semi-closed circuit and closed circuit) are also self-contained systems (as opposed to surface-supplied systems) and are therefore classified as scuba.
[edit]Etymology

The term SCUBA (an acronym for Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus) arose during World War II, and originally referred to United States combat frogmen's oxygen rebreathers, developed by Dr. Christian Lambertsen for underwater warfare.[2][3][4].
The word SCUBA began as an acronym, but it is now usually thought of as a regular word—scuba. It has become acceptable to refer to "scuba equipment" or "scuba apparatus"—examples of the linguistic RAS syndrome. It has been adapted into the Welsh language as "sgwba".
[edit]Types of diving



Divemaster ready to dive Shark and Yolanda reefs at Rās Muhammad, Sharm el-Sheikh.
Scuba diving is still evolving, but general classifications have grown to describe various diving activities. These classifications include:
Commercial diving
Military diving
Naval diving
Police diving
Professional diving
Recreational diving
Rescue and recovery diving
Scientific diving
Technical diving
Cave diving
Cavern diving
Deep diving
Ice diving
Wreck diving
Reasons for diving may include:
Breathing underwater


The diver down flag - Designates a diver is in the water
For more information, see Diving regulator.
Water normally contains dissolved oxygen from which fish and other aquatic animals extract all their required oxygen as the water flows past their gills. Humans lack gills and do not otherwise have the capacity to breathe underwater unaided by external devices.[2]
Early diving experimenters quickly discovered it is not enough simply to supply air in order to breathe comfortably underwater. As one descends, in addition to the normal atmospheric pressure, water exerts increasing pressure on the chest and lungs — approximately 1 bar or 14.7 psi for every 33 feet or 10 meters of depth — so the pressure of the inhaled breath must almost exactly counter the surrounding or ambient pressure to inflate the lungs. It generally becomes difficult to breathe through a tube past three feet under the water.[2]
By always providing the breathing gas at ambient pressure, modern demand valve regulators ensure the diver can inhale and exhale naturally and virtually effortlessly, regardless of depth.
Because the diver's nose and eyes are covered by a diving mask; the diver cannot breathe in through the nose, except when wearing a full face diving mask. However, inhaling from a regulator's mouthpiece becomes second nature very quickly.

Hotels and Motels

A former British colony, Central American Belize is very much Caribbean in spirit. Forty per cent of this English-speaking paradise is protected park and nature reserve land. Enthralling Maya ruins await amid rainforest canopies. Awe-inspiring scuba diving and eco-adventures are on offer along the world's second-longest barrier reef. The 1000-foot-diameter Blue Hole is so big and so blue that it can be seen from outer space. To make the most of your visit, consider domestic flights within
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TripAdvisor SmartDeals are the best deals on the best hotels in Belize. Visit our hotel deals page.
TripAdvisor's Tourism page has the web's best articles on Belize travel.
Our Belize hotels page presents hotels ranked by popularity - read traveler reviews and guidebooks.
Looking for things to do in Belize? Try our Attractions page!
TripAdvisor's Belize restaurants page shows you the best local places to dine.
Visit our Belize forums page to ask questions and get advice about Belize travel. TripAdvisor forums let you ask questions and get advice - post in our Belize forums.
Our Maps, etc. page has maps and other travel information.
Visit our Belize discount hotels page for great savings on Belize hotels, including TripAdvisor SmartDeals.
To view all the specials, vacation packages, and other travel offers we've found, visit our All travel offers page.
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Europe
Amsterdam Restaurants
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Popular destination guides
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Chicago
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Dubai
Marrakech
Sharm El-Sheikh

Ecotourism

Ecotourism is travel to fragile, pristine, and usually protected areas that strives to be low impact and (often) small scale. It helps educate the traveler; provides funds for conservation; directly benefits the economic development and political empowerment of local communities; and fosters respect for different cultures and for human rights.[1] As defined by the co-founder of the Center for Responsible Travel, Martha Honey, Ph.D., in her book Ecotourism and Sustainable Development, Second Edition: Who Owns Paradise?. Most serious studies of ecotourism including several University programs now use this as the working definition.[2]
Ecotourism (also known as ecological tourism) is a form of tourism, that appeals to ecologically and socially conscious individuals. Generally speaking, ecotourism focuses on volunteering, personal growth and learning new ways to live on the planet. It typically involves travel to destinations where flora, fauna and cultural heritage are the primary attractions. Ecotourism is a conceptual experience, enriching those who delve into researching and understanding the environment around them. It gives us insight into our impacts, as human beings and also a greater appreciation of our own natural habitats.
Responsible ecotourism includes programs that minimize the negative aspects of conventional tourism on the environment and enhance the cultural integrity of local people. Therefore, in addition to evaluating environmental and cultural factors, an integral part of ecotourism is the promotion of recycling, energy efficiency, water conservation and creation of economic opportunities for the local communities